Semi-Lagrangian method#
Let us consider an abstract scalar advection equation of the form
\[
\frac{\partial f}{\partial t}+ a(x, t) \cdot \nabla f = 0.
\]
The characteristic curves associated to this equation are the solutions of the ordinary differential equations
\[
\frac{dX}{dt} = a(X(t), t)
\]
We shall denote by \(X(t, x, s)\) the unique solution of this equation associated to the initial condition \(X(s) = x\).
The classical semi-Lagrangian method is based on a backtracking of characteristics. Two steps are needed to update the distribution function \(f^{n+1}\) at \(t^{n+1}\) from its value \(f^n\) at time \(t^n\) :
For each grid point \(x_i\) compute \(X(t^n; x_i, t^{n+1})\) the value of the characteristic at \(t^n\) which takes the value \(x_i\) at \(t^{n+1}\).
As the distribution solution of first equation verifies
\[f^{n+1}(x_i) = f^n(X(t^n; x_i, t^{n+1})),\]
we obtain the desired value of \(f^{n+1}(x_i)\) by computing \(f^n(X(t^n;x_i,t^{n+1})\) by interpolation as \(X(t^n; x_i, t^{n+1})\) is in general not a grid point.
Eric Sonnendrücker - Numerical methods for the Vlasov equations
%matplotlib inline
%config InlineBackend.figure_format = 'retina'
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
plt.rcParams['figure.figsize'] = (10.0, 6.0)
# Disable the pager for lprun
from IPython.core import page
page.page = print
Bspline interpolator#
Numpy#
def bspline_python(p, j, x):
"""Return the value at x in [0,1[ of the B-spline with
integer nodes of degree p with support starting at j.
Implemented recursively using the de Boor's recursion formula"""
assert (x >= 0.0) & (x <= 1.0)
assert (type(p) == int) & (type(j) == int)
if p == 0:
if j == 0:
return 1.0
else:
return 0.0
else:
w = (x - j) / p
w1 = (x - j - 1) / p
return w * bspline_python(p - 1, j, x) + (1 - w1) * bspline_python(p - 1, j + 1, x)
import numpy as np
from scipy.fftpack import fft, ifft
class BSplineNumpy:
""" Class to compute BSL advection of 1d function """
def __init__(self, p, xmin, xmax, ncells):
assert p & 1 == 1 # check that p is odd
self.p = p
self.ncells = ncells
# compute eigenvalues of degree p b-spline matrix
self.modes = 2 * np.pi * np.arange(ncells) / ncells
self.deltax = (xmax - xmin) / ncells
self.eig_bspl = bspline_python(p, -(p + 1) // 2, 0.0)
for j in range(1, (p + 1) // 2):
self.eig_bspl += bspline_python(p, j - (p + 1) // 2, 0.0) * 2 * np.cos(j * self.modes)
self.eigalpha = np.zeros(ncells, dtype=complex)
def interpolate_disp(self, f, alpha):
"""compute the interpolating spline of degree p of odd degree
of a function f on a periodic uniform mesh, at
all points xi-alpha"""
p = self.p
assert (np.size(f) == self.ncells)
# compute eigenvalues of cubic splines evaluated at displaced points
ishift = np.floor(-alpha / self.deltax)
beta = -ishift - alpha / self.deltax
self.eigalpha.fill(0.)
for j in range(-(p-1)//2, (p+1)//2 + 1):
self.eigalpha += bspline_python(p, j-(p+1)//2, beta) * np.exp((ishift+j)*1j*self.modes)
# compute interpolating spline using fft and properties of circulant matrices
return np.real(ifft(fft(f) * self.eigalpha / self.eig_bspl))
Interpolation test#
\(\sin\) function after a displacement of alpha
def interpolation_test(BSplineClass):
""" Test to check interpolation"""
n = 64
cs = BSplineClass(3,0,1,n)
x = np.linspace(0,1,n, endpoint=False)
f = np.sin(x*4*np.pi)
alpha = 0.2
return np.allclose(np.sin((x-alpha)*4*np.pi), cs.interpolate_disp(f, alpha))
interpolation_test(BSplineNumpy)
True
Profiling the code#
%load_ext line_profiler
n =1024
cs = BSplineNumpy(3,0,1,n)
x = np.linspace(0,1,n, endpoint=False)
f = np.sin(x*4*np.pi)
alpha = 0.2;
%lprun -s -f cs.interpolate_disp -T lp_results.txt cs.interpolate_disp(f, alpha);
Timer unit: 1e-09 s
Total time: 0.00120533 s
File: /tmp/ipykernel_7635/78781500.py
Function: interpolate_disp at line 22
Line # Hits Time Per Hit % Time Line Contents
==============================================================
22 def interpolate_disp(self, f, alpha):
23 """compute the interpolating spline of degree p of odd degree
24 of a function f on a periodic uniform mesh, at
25 all points xi-alpha"""
26 1 1123.0 1123.0 0.1 p = self.p
27 1 9388.0 9388.0 0.8 assert (np.size(f) == self.ncells)
28 # compute eigenvalues of cubic splines evaluated at displaced points
29 1 7715.0 7715.0 0.6 ishift = np.floor(-alpha / self.deltax)
30 1 1002.0 1002.0 0.1 beta = -ishift - alpha / self.deltax
31 1 13275.0 13275.0 1.1 self.eigalpha.fill(0.)
32 5 4840.0 968.0 0.4 for j in range(-(p-1)//2, (p+1)//2 + 1):
33 4 981917.0 245479.2 81.5 self.eigalpha += bspline_python(p, j-(p+1)//2, beta) * np.exp((ishift+j)*1j*self.modes)
34
35 # compute interpolating spline using fft and properties of circulant matrices
36 1 186068.0 186068.0 15.4 return np.real(ifft(fft(f) * self.eigalpha / self.eig_bspl))
*** Profile printout saved to text file 'lp_results.txt'.
Fortran#
Replace the bspline computation by a fortran function, call it bspline_fortran.
%load_ext fortranmagic
%%fortran
recursive function bspline_fortran(p, j, x) result(res)
integer :: p, j
real(8) :: x, w, w1
real(8) :: res
if (p == 0) then
if (j == 0) then
res = 1.0
return
else
res = 0.0
return
end if
else
w = (x - j) / p
w1 = (x - j - 1) / p
end if
res = w * bspline_fortran(p-1,j,x) &
+(1-w1)*bspline_fortran(p-1,j+1,x)
end function bspline_fortran
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<frozen runpy>", line 198, in _run_module_as_main
File "<frozen runpy>", line 88, in _run_code
File "/usr/share/miniconda3/envs/runenv/lib/python3.13/site-packages/numpy/f2py/__main__.py", line 5, in <module>
main()
~~~~^^
File "/usr/share/miniconda3/envs/runenv/lib/python3.13/site-packages/numpy/f2py/f2py2e.py", line 781, in main
run_compile()
~~~~~~~~~~~^^
File "/usr/share/miniconda3/envs/runenv/lib/python3.13/site-packages/numpy/f2py/f2py2e.py", line 753, in run_compile
builder.compile()
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
File "/usr/share/miniconda3/envs/runenv/lib/python3.13/site-packages/numpy/f2py/_backends/_meson.py", line 192, in compile
self.run_meson(self.build_dir)
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
File "/usr/share/miniconda3/envs/runenv/lib/python3.13/site-packages/numpy/f2py/_backends/_meson.py", line 185, in run_meson
self._run_subprocess_command(setup_command, build_dir)
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
File "/usr/share/miniconda3/envs/runenv/lib/python3.13/site-packages/numpy/f2py/_backends/_meson.py", line 181, in _run_subprocess_command
subprocess.run(command, cwd=cwd, check=True)
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
File "/usr/share/miniconda3/envs/runenv/lib/python3.13/subprocess.py", line 554, in run
with Popen(*popenargs, **kwargs) as process:
~~~~~^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
File "/usr/share/miniconda3/envs/runenv/lib/python3.13/subprocess.py", line 1039, in __init__
self._execute_child(args, executable, preexec_fn, close_fds,
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
pass_fds, cwd, env,
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
...<5 lines>...
gid, gids, uid, umask,
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
start_new_session, process_group)
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
File "/usr/share/miniconda3/envs/runenv/lib/python3.13/subprocess.py", line 1972, in _execute_child
raise child_exception_type(errno_num, err_msg, err_filename)
FileNotFoundError: [Errno 2] No such file or directory: 'meson'
Cannot use distutils backend with Python>=3.12, using meson backend instead.
Using meson backend
Will pass --lower to f2py
See https://numpy.org/doc/stable/f2py/buildtools/meson.html
Reading fortran codes...
Reading file '/home/runner/.cache/ipython/fortranmagic/d694754d/_fortran_magic_465d9886feeeb1eab306e2fc31692805.f90' (format:free)
Post-processing...
Block: _fortran_magic_465d9886feeeb1eab306e2fc31692805
Block: bspline_fortran
In: :_fortran_magic_465d9886feeeb1eab306e2fc31692805:/home/runner/.cache/ipython/fortranmagic/d694754d/_fortran_magic_465d9886feeeb1eab306e2fc31692805.f90:bspline_fortran
analyzevars: prefix ('recursive') were not used
Applying post-processing hooks...
character_backward_compatibility_hook
Post-processing (stage 2)...
Building modules...
Building module "_fortran_magic_465d9886feeeb1eab306e2fc31692805"...
Generating possibly empty wrappers"
Maybe empty "_fortran_magic_465d9886feeeb1eab306e2fc31692805-f2pywrappers.f"
Creating wrapper for Fortran function "bspline_fortran"("bspline_fortran")...
Constructing wrapper function "bspline_fortran"...
res = bspline_fortran(p,j,x)
Wrote C/API module "_fortran_magic_465d9886feeeb1eab306e2fc31692805" to file "./_fortran_magic_465d9886feeeb1eab306e2fc31692805module.c"
Fortran 77 wrappers are saved to "./_fortran_magic_465d9886feeeb1eab306e2fc31692805-f2pywrappers.f"
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
RuntimeError Traceback (most recent call last)
Cell In[10], line 1
----> 1 get_ipython().run_cell_magic('fortran', '', 'recursive function bspline_fortran(p, j, x) result(res)\n integer :: p, j\n real(8) :: x, w, w1\n real(8) :: res\n\n if (p == 0) then\n if (j == 0) then\n res = 1.0\n return\n else\n res = 0.0\n return\n end if\n else\n w = (x - j) / p\n w1 = (x - j - 1) / p\n end if\n\n res = w * bspline_fortran(p-1,j,x) &\n +(1-w1)*bspline_fortran(p-1,j+1,x)\n\nend function bspline_fortran\n')
File /usr/share/miniconda3/envs/runenv/lib/python3.13/site-packages/IPython/core/interactiveshell.py:2549, in InteractiveShell.run_cell_magic(self, magic_name, line, cell)
2547 with self.builtin_trap:
2548 args = (magic_arg_s, cell)
-> 2549 result = fn(*args, **kwargs)
2551 # The code below prevents the output from being displayed
2552 # when using magics with decorator @output_can_be_silenced
2553 # when the last Python token in the expression is a ';'.
2554 if getattr(fn, magic.MAGIC_OUTPUT_CAN_BE_SILENCED, False):
File /usr/share/miniconda3/envs/runenv/lib/python3.13/site-packages/fortranmagic.py:516, in FortranMagics.fortran(self, line, cell)
511 res = self._run_f2py(f2py_args + ['-m', module_name, '-c',
512 f_f90_file],
513 verbosity=args.verbosity,
514 fflags=fflags)
515 if res != 0:
--> 516 raise RuntimeError("f2py failed, see output")
518 self._code_cache[key] = module_name
519 module = _imp_load_dynamic(module_name, module_path)
RuntimeError: f2py failed, see output
import numpy as np
from scipy.fftpack import fft, ifft
class BSplineFortran:
def __init__(self, p, xmin, xmax, ncells):
assert p & 1 == 1 # check that p is odd
self.p = p
self.ncells = ncells
# compute eigenvalues of degree p b-spline matrix
self.modes = 2 * np.pi * np.arange(ncells) / ncells
self.deltax = (xmax - xmin) / ncells
self.eig_bspl = bspline_fortran(p, -(p+1)//2, 0.0)
for j in range(1, (p+1)//2):
self.eig_bspl += bspline_fortran(p, j-(p+1)//2,0.0)*2*np.cos(j*self.modes)
self.eigalpha = np.zeros(ncells, dtype=complex)
def interpolate_disp(self, f, alpha):
"""compute the interpolating spline of degree p of odd degree
of a function f on a periodic uniform mesh, at
all points xi-alpha"""
p = self.p
assert (np.size(f) == self.ncells)
# compute eigenvalues of cubic splines evaluated at displaced points
ishift = np.floor(-alpha / self.deltax)
beta = -ishift - alpha / self.deltax
self.eigalpha.fill(0.)
for j in range(-(p-1)//2, (p+1)//2 + 1):
self.eigalpha += bspline_fortran(p, j-(p+1)//2, beta) * np.exp((ishift+j)*1j*self.modes)
# compute interpolating spline using fft and properties of circulant matrices
return np.real(ifft(fft(f) * self.eigalpha / self.eig_bspl))
interpolation_test(BSplineFortran)
Numba#
Create a optimized function of bspline python function with Numba. Call it bspline_numba.
# %load solutions/landau_damping/bspline_numba.py
from numba import jit, int32, float64
from scipy.fftpack import fft, ifft
@jit("float64(int32,int32,float64)",nopython=True)
def bspline_numba(p, j, x):
"""Return the value at x in [0,1[ of the B-spline with
integer nodes of degree p with support starting at j.
Implemented recursively using the de Boor's recursion formula"""
assert ((x >= 0.0) & (x <= 1.0))
if p == 0:
if j == 0:
return 1.0
else:
return 0.0
else:
w = (x-j)/p
w1 = (x-j-1)/p
return w * bspline_numba(p-1,j,x)+(1-w1)*bspline_numba(p-1,j+1,x)
class BSplineNumba:
def __init__(self, p, xmin, xmax, ncells):
assert p & 1 == 1 # check that p is odd
self.p = p
self.ncells = ncells
# compute eigenvalues of degree p b-spline matrix
self.modes = 2 * np.pi * np.arange(ncells) / ncells
self.deltax = (xmax - xmin) / ncells
self.eig_bspl = bspline_numba(p, -(p+1)//2, 0.0)
for j in range(1, (p + 1) // 2):
self.eig_bspl += bspline_numba(p,j-(p+1)//2,0.0)*2*np.cos(j*self.modes)
self.eigalpha = np.zeros(ncells, dtype=complex)
def interpolate_disp(self, f, alpha):
"""compute the interpolating spline of degree p of odd degree
of a function f on a periodic uniform mesh, at
all points xi-alpha"""
p = self.p
assert (np.size(f) == self.ncells)
# compute eigenvalues of cubic splines evaluated at displaced points
ishift = np.floor(-alpha / self.deltax)
beta = -ishift - alpha / self.deltax
self.eigalpha.fill(0.)
for j in range(-(p-1)//2, (p+1)//2+1):
self.eigalpha += bspline_numba(p, j-(p+1)//2, beta)*np.exp((ishift+j)*1j*self.modes)
# compute interpolating spline using fft and properties of circulant matrices
return np.real(ifft(fft(f) * self.eigalpha / self.eig_bspl))
interpolation_test(BSplineNumba)
Pythran#
import pythran
%load_ext pythran.magic
# %load solutions/landau_damping/bspline_pythran.py
#pythran export bspline_pythran(int,int,float64)
def bspline_pythran(p, j, x):
if p == 0:
if j == 0:
return 1.0
else:
return 0.0
else:
w = (x-j)/p
w1 = (x-j-1)/p
return w * bspline_pythran(p-1,j,x)+(1-w1)*bspline_pythran(p-1,j+1,x)
class BSplinePythran:
def __init__(self, p, xmin, xmax, ncells):
assert p & 1 == 1 # check that p is odd
self.p = p
self.ncells = ncells
# compute eigenvalues of degree p b-spline matrix
self.modes = 2 * np.pi * np.arange(ncells) / ncells
self.deltax = (xmax - xmin) / ncells
self.eig_bspl = bspline_pythran(p, -(p+1)//2, 0.0)
for j in range(1, (p + 1) // 2):
self.eig_bspl += bspline_pythran(p,j-(p+1)//2,0.0)*2*np.cos(j*self.modes)
self.eigalpha = np.zeros(ncells, dtype=complex)
def interpolate_disp(self, f, alpha):
"""compute the interpolating spline of degree p of odd degree
of a function f on a periodic uniform mesh, at
all points xi-alpha"""
p = self.p
assert (f.size == self.ncells)
# compute eigenvalues of cubic splines evaluated at displaced points
ishift = np.floor(-alpha / self.deltax)
beta = -ishift - alpha / self.deltax
self.eigalpha.fill(0.)
for j in range(-(p-1)//2, (p+1)//2+1):
self.eigalpha += bspline_pythran(p, j-(p+1)//2, beta)*np.exp((ishift+j)*1j*self.modes)
# compute interpolating spline using fft and properties of circulant matrices
return np.real(ifft(fft(f) * self.eigalpha / self.eig_bspl))
interpolation_test(BSplinePythran)
Cython#
Create bspline_cython function.
%load_ext cython
%%cython -a
def bspline_cython(p, j, x):
"""Return the value at x in [0,1[ of the B-spline with
integer nodes of degree p with support starting at j.
Implemented recursively using the de Boor's recursion formula"""
assert (x >= 0.0) & (x <= 1.0)
assert (type(p) == int) & (type(j) == int)
if p == 0:
if j == 0:
return 1.0
else:
return 0.0
else:
w = (x - j) / p
w1 = (x - j - 1) / p
return w * bspline_cython(p - 1, j, x) + (1 - w1) * bspline_cython(p - 1, j + 1, x)
%%cython
import cython
import numpy as np
cimport numpy as np
from scipy.fftpack import fft, ifft
@cython.cdivision(True)
cdef double bspline_cython(int p, int j, double x):
"""Return the value at x in [0,1[ of the B-spline with
integer nodes of degree p with support starting at j.
Implemented recursively using the de Boor's recursion formula"""
cdef double w, w1
if p == 0:
if j == 0:
return 1.0
else:
return 0.0
else:
w = (x - j) / p
w1 = (x - j - 1) / p
return w * bspline_cython(p-1,j,x)+(1-w1)*bspline_cython(p-1,j+1,x)
class BSplineCython:
def __init__(self, p, xmin, xmax, ncells):
self.p = p
self.ncells = ncells
# compute eigenvalues of degree p b-spline matrix
self.modes = 2 * np.pi * np.arange(ncells) / ncells
self.deltax = (xmax - xmin) / ncells
self.eig_bspl = bspline_cython(p,-(p+1)//2, 0.0)
for j in range(1, (p + 1) // 2):
self.eig_bspl += bspline_cython(p,j-(p+1)//2,0.0)*2*np.cos(j*self.modes)
self.eigalpha = np.zeros(ncells, dtype=complex)
@cython.boundscheck(False)
@cython.wraparound(False)
def interpolate_disp(self, f, alpha):
"""compute the interpolating spline of degree p of odd degree
of a function f on a periodic uniform mesh, at
all points xi-alpha"""
cdef Py_ssize_t j
cdef int p = self.p
# compute eigenvalues of cubic splines evaluated at displaced points
cdef int ishift = np.floor(-alpha / self.deltax)
cdef double beta = -ishift - alpha / self.deltax
self.eigalpha.fill(0)
for j in range(-(p-1)//2, (p+1)//2+1):
self.eigalpha += bspline_cython(p,j-(p+1)//2,beta)*np.exp((ishift+j)*1j*self.modes)
# compute interpolating spline using fft and properties of circulant matrices
return np.real(ifft(fft(f) * self.eigalpha / self.eig_bspl))
interpolation_test(BSplineCython)
import seaborn; seaborn.set()
from tqdm.notebook import tqdm
Mrange = (2 ** np.arange(5, 10)).astype(int)
t_numpy = []
t_fortran = []
t_numba = []
t_pythran = []
t_cython = []
for M in tqdm(Mrange):
x = np.linspace(0,1,M, endpoint=False)
f = np.sin(x*4*np.pi)
cs1 = BSplineNumpy(5,0,1,M)
cs2 = BSplineFortran(5,0,1,M)
cs3 = BSplineNumba(5,0,1,M)
cs4 = BSplinePythran(5,0,1,M)
cs5 = BSplineCython(5,0,1,M)
alpha = 0.1
t1 = %timeit -oq cs1.interpolate_disp(f, alpha)
t2 = %timeit -oq cs2.interpolate_disp(f, alpha)
t3 = %timeit -oq cs3.interpolate_disp(f, alpha)
t4 = %timeit -oq cs4.interpolate_disp(f, alpha)
t5 = %timeit -oq cs5.interpolate_disp(f, alpha)
t_numpy.append(t1.best)
t_fortran.append(t2.best)
t_numba.append(t3.best)
t_pythran.append(t4.best)
t_cython.append(t5.best)
plt.loglog(Mrange, t_numpy, label='numpy')
plt.loglog(Mrange, t_fortran, label='fortran')
plt.loglog(Mrange, t_numba, label='numba')
plt.loglog(Mrange, t_pythran, label='pythran')
plt.loglog(Mrange, t_cython, label='cython')
plt.legend(loc='lower right')
plt.xlabel('Number of points')
plt.ylabel('Execution Time (s)');
Vlasov-Poisson equation#
We consider the dimensionless Vlasov-Poisson equation for one species with a neutralizing background.
\[\begin{split}
\frac{\partial f}{\partial t}+ v\cdot \nabla_x f + E(t,x) \cdot \nabla_v f = 0, \\
- \Delta \phi = 1 - \rho, E = - \nabla \phi \\
\rho(t,x) = \int f(t,x,v)dv.
\end{split}\]
BSpline = dict(numpy=BSplineNumpy,
fortran=BSplineFortran,
cython=BSplineCython,
numba=BSplineNumba,
pythran=BSplinePythran)
class VlasovPoisson:
def __init__(self, xmin, xmax, nx, vmin, vmax, nv, opt='numpy'):
# Grid
self.nx = nx
self.x, self.dx = np.linspace(xmin, xmax, nx, endpoint=False, retstep=True)
self.nv = nv
self.v, self.dv = np.linspace(vmin, vmax, nv, endpoint=False, retstep=True)
# Distribution function
self.f = np.zeros((nx,nv))
# Interpolators for advection
BSplineClass = BSpline[opt]
self.cs_x = BSplineClass(3, xmin, xmax, nx)
self.cs_v = BSplineClass(3, vmin, vmax, nv)
# Modes for Poisson equation
self.modes = np.zeros(nx)
k = 2* np.pi / (xmax - xmin)
self.modes[:nx//2] = k * np.arange(nx//2)
self.modes[nx//2:] = - k * np.arange(nx//2,0,-1)
self.modes += self.modes == 0 # avoid division by zero
def advection_x(self, dt):
for j in range(self.nv):
alpha = dt * self.v[j]
self.f[j,:] = self.cs_x.interpolate_disp(self.f[j,:], alpha)
def advection_v(self, e, dt):
for i in range(self.nx):
alpha = dt * e[i]
self.f[:,i] = self.cs_v.interpolate_disp(self.f[:,i], alpha)
def compute_rho(self):
rho = self.dv * np.sum(self.f, axis=0)
return rho - rho.mean()
def compute_e(self, rho):
# compute Ex using that ik*Ex = rho
rhok = fft(rho)/self.modes
return np.real(ifft(-1j*rhok))
def run(self, f, nstep, dt):
self.f = f
nrj = []
self.advection_x(0.5*dt)
for istep in tqdm(range(nstep)):
rho = self.compute_rho()
e = self.compute_e(rho)
self.advection_v(e, dt)
self.advection_x(dt)
nrj.append( 0.5*np.log(np.sum(e*e)*self.dx))
return nrj
Landau Damping#
from time import time
elapsed_time = {}
fig, axes = plt.subplots()
for opt in ('numpy', 'fortran', 'numba', 'cython','pythran'):
# Set grid
nx, nv = 32, 64
xmin, xmax = 0.0, 4*np.pi
vmin, vmax = -6., 6.
# Create Vlasov-Poisson simulation
sim = VlasovPoisson(xmin, xmax, nx, vmin, vmax, nv, opt=opt)
# Initialize distribution function
X, V = np.meshgrid(sim.x, sim.v)
eps, kx = 0.001, 0.5
f = (1.0+eps*np.cos(kx*X))/np.sqrt(2.0*np.pi)* np.exp(-0.5*V*V)
# Set time domain
nstep = 600
t, dt = np.linspace(0.0, 60.0, nstep, retstep=True)
# Run simulation
etime = time()
nrj = sim.run(f, nstep, dt)
print(" {0:12s} : {1:.4f} ".format(opt, time()-etime))
# Plot energy
axes.plot(t, nrj, label=opt)
axes.plot(t, -0.1533*t-5.50)
plt.legend();